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COPJBWGHT DEPOStT. 



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How to Find the Staes, 



INDICATIONS OP THE HOST INTERESTING OBJECTS 
IN THE STAREY HEAYEXS, 



AN ACCOUNT OF THE 



ASTKONOMICAL LANTERN AND ITS USE. 



BY / 

V 

JAMES FREEMAN CEAEKE. 









BOSTON : 

L0CKT700D, BROOKS, AND CO 
1878. 




Copyright, 1878, by 
Lockwood, Brooks and Company. 



(,* 



, — — ■ 

Press of Rockwell and Churchill, 39 Arch Street, Boston, 



CONTENTS, 



Section 1. Object of this Book .... 
Section 2. The Fixed Stabs and Planets . 
Section 3. Apparent Magnitude of the Stabs . 
Section 4. Position of the Constellations at 

Dtpfeeent Seasons .... 
Section 5. To Find the Constellations by 

Alignment ob Teiangulation 
Section 6. Inteeesttng Objects in the Heavens 

at Each Season of the Yeab 
Section 7. Desceiption of the Astronomical 

Lanteen and the Slides 



28 



HOW TO FIND THE STAES. 



§1. — OBJECT OF THIS BOOK. 

The object of this little book is to help the 
beginner to become better acquainted, in the 
easiest way, with the visible stany heavens ; to 
know the winter and summer constellations, and 
the principal fixed stars. It will show the position 
of the constellations at different periods of the 
year, giving their place in each of the four sea- 
sons. It will also show how to find the separate 
clusters by a series of triangles and diagrams, 
covering the whole heavens, and connecting each 
constellation with its neighbors. It will indicate 
the most interesting objects at each period of 
the year, especially such as can be found 
with a telescope of moderate power. And it will 
close by describing the Astronomical Lantern, 
manufactured and sold by Lockwood, Brooks & 
Co., and its use. 



6 HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

§2. — THE FIXED STARS AND PLANETS. 

The Planets (from the Greek word meaning 
"to wander"), which move among the fixed 
stars, cannot be represented on this Lantern. 
Nor is it necessary, since it is very easy to iden- 
tify the principal planets : Venus, Jupiter, Mars, 
Saturn. Mercury is less easily perceived, but 
may sometimes be discovered just after sunset, in 
the western aky, especially in March. Seen 
through a telescope, even of low power, Venus, 
Jupiter, and Saturn are very interesting objects. 
Venus is often seen as a brilliant crescent, espe- 
cial^ when it is brightest. I once showed it to a 
working man, through my telescope, and he mani- 
fested no surprise. He thought he was looking 
at the moon. Jupiter, with his belts and four 
satellites, always arranged on a nearly straight 
line, is surprisingly beautiful. Saturn, hanging 
in the sky, with its marvellous ring, self-sus- 
pended, surrounding it, is always an object of 
great interest. A telescope of low power shows 
these objects to advantage. 

But though these planets are alwaj-s interesting 
objects, they cannot be indicated on maps or 
globes, since the}' are continually changing their 



ROW TO FIED TEE STABS. 7 

position. They may be distinguished from the 
fixed stars by the following characters : — 

1. The stars shine with their own light, the 
planets with reflected light. Consequently, when 
a planet is nearly between the earth and the sun, 
it becomes a crescent ; when between the earth 
and sun, and close to the sun, it disappears. A 
bright star may be seen, as bright as ever, when 
very near the sun. 

2. The stars have no disks. A planet, seen 
through a telescope, shows a disk, which is larger 
in proportion to the magnifjung power. Through 
a large telescope Jupiter appears round and as 
large as the full moon. But when examined by 
the same telescope, the brightest star, Sirius, for 
example, remains a point, with no apparent 
diameter, though its brilliancy is much increased. 

3. The stars scintillate, or twinkle, — : a phe- 
nomenon, the precise cause of which is not 
ascertained. But all the explanations of this 
phenomenon depend on the fact that the light of 
a star proceeds from a single point. The re- 
ceived theor} T of twinkling formerly was that the 
ray from the star was intercepted continually by 
motes floating in the atmosphere. But this theory 
ignored the fact that the mote, to produce this 



8 nOW TO FIND TnE STARS. 

effect, must always be as large as the pupil of. the 
eye. The explanation of Arago is that this phe- 
nomenon is due to what is called the " interference 
of light," or light passing through atmospheric 
media not homogeneous. 

4. The chief and most wonderful peculiarity of 
the fixed stars is that they virtually never change 
their positions in relation to each other. Thus 
the forms of the constellations remain unaltered 
for thousands of years. This indicates the enor- 
mous distance of the stars from the earth. Every 
3'ear our globe, in its course round the sun, visits 
points, distant from each other in space more 
than 180,000,000 miles. Yet this makes no per- 
ceptible change in the relative position of the 
stars toward each other. This is what is meant 
b} r saj'ing that the stars have no apparent annual 
parallax. By the most powerful telescopes and 
accurate micrometers, some slight annual move- 
ment is perceived in some stars ; but to the 
naked eye no such movement is perceptible. 

§ 3. — APPARENT MAGNITUDE OF THE 
STARS. 

Though seen through the most powerful tele- 
scope, every star appears as a point of light, with 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 9 

no apparent diameter ; yet some are much 
brighter than others, and are said, for con- 
venience, to be of different magnitudes. Stars 
of the first six magnitudes alone are visible to the 
unaided vision ; all below this size are telescopic 
stars. 

As no instrument has been as yet brought into 
use by which to measure carefully the comparative 
brightness of the stars, the classification into 
magnitudes is quite imperfect. At present, it is 
as follows : — 

There are about 20 stars of the First magnitude. 
" " " 65 " " Second " 
" » 200 " " Third " 
" " " 600 " " Fourth " 
" " " 1,100 " " Fifth " 

" " " 3,200 " " Sixth "• 

As the sizes of the stars diminish, the number 
increases. Of telescopic stars, for example, there 
are of the 

7th magnitude 13,000 

8th magnitude 40,000 

9th magnitude . . . . . 142,000 

And, visible in the most powerful tel- * 

escope . . . . . 20,000,000 



10 HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

At any one time and place, on a bright night, 
there are visible to the naked e} T e about 3,000 stars. 

The names of the stars in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, of the first magnitude, as usually given 
in the works on astroiionry, are as follows : — 

1. Sirius, in the Greater Dog. 

2. Arcturus, in Bootes. 

3. Vega, in the I/yre. 

4. Capella, in Auriga. 

5. Rigel, in Orion. 

6. A 1 debar an, in the Bull. 

7. Betelguese, in Orion. 

8. Antares, in the Scorpion. 

9. Pnxyyon, in the Lesser Dog. 

10. Altair, in the Eagle. 

11. Spica, in the Virgin. 

12. Regulus, in the Lion. 

13. Fomalhaut, in the Southern Fish. 

14. Castor, in the Twins. 1 

The stars of the first magnitude, not visible in 
the Northern Hemisphere, are Alpha and Beta 

1 Burritt makes Castor of the 1st magnitude, and Pollux of the 2d 
magnitude. Rolfe and Gillet make Pollux of the 1st, and Castor of 
the 2d. So does Littrow (Himmel's Atlas). But Proctor (New Star 
Atlas) gives both as of the same size. This illustrates the arbitrary 
nature of this classification. 



HOW TO FIXD THE STABS. 11 

Centauri, Alpha and Beta Cruris, Alpha and Beta 
Argus, and Alpha Eridani. 



§4. — POSITION OF THE CONSTELLATIONS 
AT DIFFERENT SEASONS OF THE YEAR. 

By the revolution of the earth, which turns 
on its axis every twentj'-four hours, every ob- 
server is brought round once a day to every point 
of the heavens, except that portion which is 
hidden by the rotundity of the earth itself. To an 
observer in the Northern Hemisphere all parts of 
the heavens become visible every year, except the 
region around the Southern Pole. Were it not 
for the daylight, which eclipses a portion, we 
should see all the other stars once in eveiy twen- 
ty-four hours. But, during the year, we have an 
opportunity, by the revolution of the earth in its 
orbit, to see them all, except those at the extreme 
south. 

January. 

If we go out on a bright night in January, about 
nine o'clock, we shall observe the constellations 
in the following positions : — 

The bright star nearly overhead, to the east of 
the zenith, is Capella. The constellation over- 



12 HOW TO FIXD THE STABS. 

head, just west of the zenith, is Perseus. Lower 
down, to the west, is Andromeda ; lower still, the 
Great Square of Pegasus. 

The Great Bear is in the northeast, standing on 
its tail. The Dragon makes a curve to the north, 
around the Little Bear. Vega, the bright star in 
the Lyre, is just setting in the northwest, with the 
Great Cross of the Swan standing upright. The 
long arm of the Cross points to the zenith, and 
half-way up in the northwest is Cassiopeia. 

Towards the southwest, above the horizon, is 
Cetus, the Whale, a large constellation resembling 
an invalid's chair, its long back leaning toward 

Orion. 

Orion stands nearly upright in the southern 
sky, with Sirius sparkling in the southeast. 
Below Capella, toward the east, are the Twins, 
two stars of nearly the same brilliancy, Procyou, 
the Little Dog, makes an equilateral triangle with 
Sirius and the bright star Betelguese on the 
shoulder of Orion. 

The Sickle, in the Lion, is just rising in the, 

east. 

March. 

•At the beginning of March the following 

changes have taken place : — 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS. 13 

Pegasus, Cygnus, and Cetus have disappeared 
in the west. Andromeda is low down in the 
northwest. Vega is just above the northern 
horizon, rising toward the east. Orion has moved 
toward the southwest. Aldebaran and the Ple- 
iades are in the western sky, and above them 
hangs the bright Capella. Northwest of Capella 
is the W of Cassiopeia. 

The Great Bear has moved up toward the 
zenith, his tail pointing east. Following its 
curve we see the bright star, Arcturus, rising in 
the east. 

The Sickle, with the bright' star Regulus in its 
handle, has moved up high in the southeastern 
heavens. Below it Cor Hydrae (the Solitary 
One, as the Arabs named it) is by itself, half-way 
between the south and the southeast. 

To the southeast is Alkes, the chief star in 
the Cup. 

The five principal stars of Virgo, which are 
shaped like a large cup, are rising in the east, 
below the triangle in Leo, of which Denebola 
is the apex. 

_ The two bright stars in the head of the Dragon 
are just above Vega in the north. 



14 HOW TO FIXD THE STABS. 

June. 

About the first of June, the following constel- 
lations have disappeared : Orion, Sirius in Canis 
Major, Taurus, Aries, Andromeda. Leo, with 
the Sickle, is sinking toward the west. Gemini 
and Perseus, with Auriga, have moved down to 
the northwest. Virgo is high in the south ; 
Spica, its brightest star, is luminous in the south- 
ern heavens. 

Below Virgo is the little quadrilateral of 
Co.rvus. In the south, just above the horizon, 
is the upper part of the constellation of Centaur. 

In the southeast is the magnificent constellation 
Scorpio, the brightest of the southern groups, and, 
in advance of it, moving west, is Libra, known 
b}' three principal stars. 

To the east of the Scorpion is the great con- 
stellation Ophiuchus. A line of six bright stars, 
three of which belong to Ophiuchus and three to 
the Serpent, rise from the horizon toward Arctu- 
rus, and then the line bends over to the northeast, 
imitating the form of a sabre. 

Above Ophiuchus are Hercules and Bootes ; the 
last star in the tail of the Great Bear being now 
near the zenith. 



EOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 15 

September. 

The Great Bear has moved round so as to be 
between the Pole star and the northern horizon. 

Arcturus and Bootes are now sinking toward 
the west. Virgo, Corvus, Hydra, the Lion and 
Sickle, the Twins, have disappeared. Capella, 
having gone round the sky, is rising again in the 
east. 

Overhead is Lyra, and the Cross of the Swan. 
Below this, to the south, is the Eagle. Lower 
down in the south are Sagittarius, Capricornus, 
and Aquarius. 

The Great Square of Pegasus is high up in the 
southeast. * In the east Andromeda has risen into 
a conspicuous position, with Aries below. Far- 
ther north is Perseus, between Andromeda and 
Capella. Ophiuchus, the Serpent, and Hercules 
are all high up in the southwest. 

When these movements have been watched dur- 
ing a year, they will always remain familiar and 
friendly. The stars, it will be noticed, revolve 
round the Pole star, in the opposite direction to 
the hands of a watch. 



16 HOW TO FIND TEE STARS. 

§5— TO FIND THE STARS AND CONSTEL- 
LATIONS BY ALIGNMENT OR TRIANGU- 
LATION. 

The constellations shown by the Astronomical 
Lantern, on its different maps, are these : — 

1. Little Bear and Dragon. 

2. Great Bear. 

3. Cassiopeia and Cepheus. 

4. Andromeda, Pegasus, Triangle, and Aries. 

5. Perseus, and Andromeda, Triangle, and Cas- 

siopeia. 

6. Bootes, Hercules, and Northern Crown. 

7. The Lyre, the Swan, and the Dolphin. 

8. Orion and Taurus. 

9. The Lions, Crab, Lynx, and the head of 

Hydra. 

10. Eagle, Dolphin, and part of Pegasus. 

11. Eridanus and the Whale. 

12. Ophinchus and the Serpent. 

13. The Scorpion, Sagittarius, and Libra. 

14. Virgo, Corvus, and Crater. 

15. Auriga and Gemini. 

16. Canis Major, Lepus, part of Argo and of 

Hydra. 

17. Aquarius and Capricornus. 



ROW TO FIXD TEE STABS. 17 

To find the position of these constellations is 
sometimes a little difficult to a beginner. The 
easiest way of studying the heavens so as to find 
the different star-clusters is by alignment, that is, 
\>Y connecting the unknown constellations with 
those already known, by drawing lines between 
them. 

The Great Bear. 

We will begin with the two Bears, because 
these are known to almost all persons by means 
of the group called "The Dipper," from its re- 
semblance to that common household implement. 
This consists of four stars making the cup, and 
three others the handle. Of these seven stars six 
are of the second magnitude, and one of the third. 

The Little Bear. 
A straight line drawn through the two outside 
stars of the Dipper nearly touches the Pole star, 
which is the star in the end of the tail of the Lit- 
tle Bear, or in the end of the handle of the 
Little Dipper. These two figures, the great and 
small Dippers, resemble each other very exactly, 
except that the handles bend in the opposite di- 
rection, and point to opposite regions of the 
heavens. 



18 HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

The Little Bear, attached to the Pole by the 
end of the tail, turns around it like the hands of 
a watch, but in the opposite direction. All the 
stars turn round the Pole every twenty-four hours, 
in the same direction. 

Astronomers name the chief stars in a constel- 
lation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, Alpha, 
Beta, Gamma, etc. After these are exhausted 
they have recourse to the Roman letters, and then 
to figures. 

As the seven stars in the Great Bear have often 
to be referred to in finding the others, their names 
are here given. 

The two stars which point always to the Pole 
star are called " The Poinetrs." 
The pointer nearest the pole is . Alpha, a 
The other pointer is Beta. p 

The other star in the bottom of the 

cup is Gamma, y 

The other in the top of the cup is . Delta. d 
Of the three stars in the handle that 

nearest the cup is . . • Epsilon. e , 
The middle of the three is . . Zeta. C 
The end of the handle is . . Eta. 

Suspended from the two lower stars of the Dip- 



MOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 19 

per are two tassels, each consisting of three stars, 
two near each other at the eDcl of the tassel, and 
the third nearer the Dipper. Another pair of 
small stars makes a third tassel. 

Cassiopeia. 

The Pole star is on the middle point of a straight 
line connecting the star Delta, of the Great Bear 
(where the handle joins the Dipper) , with Beta 
Cassiopeise. This constellation consists of five 
stars of the third magnitude, in the form of a W. 
The star named Beta is at the right-hand extreme 
point of this W. 

Cepheus. 
A line drawn through Alpha and Beta Cassi- 
opeise (that is, a prolongation of the right-hand 
line of the W) will strike Alpha Cephei. The 
principal stars of this constellation are three 
{Alpha, Beta, Gamma), making a curve between 
Cassiopeia and the Little Bear. They are all of 
the third magnitude. A line drawn through Alpha 
and Beta will strike the Pole star. 

The Dragon. 
A line drawn from Delta Cassiopeia^ (the star 
at the left-hand bottom point of the W) , and pass- 



20 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS. 



ing through Beta Cephei (the middle star of the 
curve), will strike the head of the Dragon. This 
is as far from Beta Cephei as that is from Delta 
Cassiopeia?. The Dragon's head is an equilat- 
eral triangle, formed by two stars of the second 
and one of the third magnitude. The other seven 
larger stars of this constellation (of the third and 
fourth magnitude) form a long curved line, bend- 
ing round between the Great and Little Bear as 
far as Beta Cephei. 

Andromeda. 
A line drawn from the Pole star through Beta 
Cassiopeia?, and prolonged as much further, will 
touch Alpha in the head of Andromeda. This 
star {Alpha Andromeda?) constitutes one of the 
corners of the great square of Pegasus. Andro- 
meda contains five stars of the second and third 
magnitude, and some smaller ones. Alpha, Delta, 
Beta, Gamma, are nearl}' in a straight line. 

Perseus. 

A line drawn through these two last stars 

{Beta and Gamma Andromeda?) goes to Algenib 

{Alpha Persei). This is a star of the second 

magnitude, the largest one in a small curve of 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS. 21 

stars, which, when once observed, is easily re- 
membered. The remarkable variable star Algol 
(the Demon) is the nearest bright star south of 
Algenib. 

Auriga. 

A line drawn from the Pole star to Alpha Cas- 
siopeia? will make the base of an equilateral trian- 
gle, of which Capella, a very brilliant star of the 
first magnitude, makes the third angle. The 
three other chief stars of this constellation make 
a straight line, pointing toward the North Pole. 
A line drawn through the two stars making the 
top of the Dipper (Delta and Alpha), and contin- 
ued across the heavens in a direction from the 
handle, will nearly strike Capella. 

Taurus (the Bull), The Pleiades. 

An isosceles triangle is formed by the three 
stars Epsilon Cassiopeia? (on the extreme left of 
the W), Capella, and Aldebaran, a bright red 
star in the forehead of the Bull. The group of 
five stars to which Aldebaran belongs has the form 
of a V, and is called the Hyacles. Near the Hy- 
ades another group, smaller, clear and compact, 
strikes the eye. These are the Pleiades. 



22 HOW TO FIND THE STAES. 

Aries (the Ram). 

A straight line from Epsilon Cassiopeia?, through 

Gamma Andromeda?, being prolonged, passes 

through Alpha Arietis and Alpha in the Fish. 

This line is divided by these stars into four equal 

parts. 

The "Whale. 

Alpha Arietis, Alpha in the Fish, and Alpha 
in the Whale, form an equilateral triangle. This 
is also the case with Alpha in the Whale, Alpha 
in the Fish, and the Pleiades. These four form, 
therefore, a nearly regular rhomboid. The seven 
principal stars in the Whale resemble a chair for 
reclining backward ; and the constellation might 
be called " The Easy Chair." 

The Twins (Gemini). 
A line drawn from Capella through Beta 
Auriga? (the next brightest star in the constel- 
lation) will pass not far from Castor. These 
twin stars, Castor and Pollux, are nearly of the 
same size, about four and a half degrees apart, 
that is, as far apart as the two stars in the Dip- 
per which are nearest to each other. Castor and 
Pollux are both stars of the second magnitude, 
though Castor is a little the brightest. The 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS, 23 

other principal stars in this constellation are 
toward Orion and Taurus, and indicate the out- 
line of a chair, leaning back, with the twins 
above, as a canopy. 

Orion. 

This, the most conspicuous constellation in 
the winter sky, is so well known that it does not 
need to be described. It contains two stars of 
the first magnitude, and three of the second. A 
line drawn through the two stars at the tips of 
the Bull's horns will strike Betelguese {Alpha 
Orionis) , the very bright star on the northeast 
corner of the constellation. A line drawn from 
Castor, through Betelguese, will touch Rigel, 
which is the bright star on the southwest corner 
of Orion. 

Great and Small Dog. 

The three stars Pollux, Procyon, and Alpha 
Orionis make a nearly right-angled triangle. 
Procyon is a reddish star of the first magnitude, 
south of Pollux, in the Little Dog, and is at the 
right angle of this triangle. Alpha Orionis, 
Procyon, and Sirius make an equilateral triangle, 
constituted of three stars of the first magnitude, 



24 SOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

of which Sirius, the Dog Star, is the brightest in 
the whole heavens. 

Leo, Hydra, and Cancer. 

Castor, Procyon, and Eegulus (in Leo) make 
another large right-angled triangle, turned in the 
opposite direction to the one last mentioned. In 
this, Procyon is again at the right angle. The 
five stars, Betelguese, Sirius, Procyon, Cor- 
Hydrse, and Regulus, make a large W, composed 
of three equilateral triangles. These five stars 
constitute the extreme points of the lines in 
this W, in the order named, beginning on the 
right upper point with Betelguese. Alfard, or 
Cor-Hydrse, is called the Solitary One, because 
it is the only large star in that region of the 
heavens. 

About half-way between Castor and Regulus is 
the constellation of Cancer, or the Crab. 

The chief stars in Leo make two groups. 
One of these is the Sickle, in the hand of which 
is Regulus. The form is so exactly that of a 
sickle, that when once seen it will not be forgot- 
ten. The other is a right-angled triangle to the 
east of the Sickle, having a star of the second 
magnitude (Denebola) at its most acute angle. 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS. 25 

Bootes, Virgo, and Libra. 

Arcturus, the chief star in Bootes, and one of 
the most brilliant in the sky, is easily found by- 
continuing the curve of the handle of the Dipper. 
The first large star this curve encounters is Arc- 
turus ; continue the curve further and it strikes 
Spica Virginis, another star of the first magni- 
tude. 

Libra follows Virgo from the east, and has 
three principal stars of the second and third 
magnitudes. 

Northern Crown, Hercules, and Ophiuchus. 

A straight line drawn through Epsilon and 
Eta, in the tail of the Great Bear (the first and 
last stars in the handle of the Dipper), will 
strike the Northern Crown. This is a small 
curve, composed of several stars, the concave 
side of which is turned toward the Pole. 

The same line, continued, strikes the head and 
neck of the Serpent of Ophiuchus. Three stars 
of the Serpent and three in Ophiuchus appear 
standing up in the southeast sky, in the spring, 
in the form of a sabre. 

A straight line from Gamma and Epsilon of 
the Dipper, strikes the Quadrangle in Hercules. 



26 SOW TO FIXD THE STARS. 

Lyre, Swan, and Eagle. 
A line drawn through Gamma and Delta, in the 
Great Bear, goes through Alpha Lyrae (Vega or 
Wega). This is a splendid star, which rivals 
Capella in brilliancy. It makes a very striking 
isosceles triangle with Deneb in the Swan, and 
Altair in the Eagle, — all three being stars of the 
first magnitude. Two small stars make with 
Vega a beautiful little triangle. Four stars in 
the Swan, together with Deneb, make a conspic- 
uous cross. Two stars of the third magnitude, 
on each side of Altair, constitute its attendants. 

Pegasus, the Dolphin, Aquarius, and Scorpio. 

A line drawn through Vega and Deneb inter- 
sects the Great Square of Pegasus. Between 
this square and Altair is the small constellation 
of the Dolphin. A line from Alpha Andromeda?, 
through the opposite corner of the Square of 
Pegasus, meets two stars near each other, in 
Aquarius. 

The Scorpion, the chief summer constellation, 
is low down in the southern horizon ; but the 
form is very distinctly perceived, and the bright- 
red star Antares, called the Heart of the Scor- 
pion, is very brilliant in the summer sky. 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 27 

Sagittarius, Crater, Corvus. 

Sagittarius follows Scorpio from the east, its 
five chief stars resembling a bow and arrow, the 
arrow directed toward the Scorpion. 

Corvus is a small quadrangle of four stars, 
easily recognized, to the south of Virgo. 

Crater is another small constellation to the 
west of Corvus. Its three chief stars form a 
small equilateral triangle. 

The Centaur is seen low down in the southern 
sky in May and June. It precedes Scorpio, and 
contains seven or eight stars of the third magnitude. 

Fomalhaut is a star of the first magnitude, seen 
near the southern horizon, in October, below 
Aquarius. 

Lepus is a small quadrangle of four stars of 
the third magnitude, below Orion. 

If the line connecting Betelguese with Sinus be 
extended as much farther, it will strike a large 
star in the Ship. If the line connecting Procyon 
with Sirius be also extended as much farther, it 
will strike another large star in the Dove. These 
two stars, with Sirius, will then form another 
large equilateral triangle, almost exactly similar 
and equal to that formed by Betelguese, Procyon, 
and Sirius. 



28 HOW TO FIXD TEE STARS. 

§ 6. — INTERESTING OBJECTS IN THE HEAV- 
ENS AT EACH SEASON OF THE YEAR. 

Most of the objects to be described in this 
section are telescopic ; but not requiring an in- 
strument of high powers. In fact, for common 
observation a telescope of two or three inches 
aperture, 1 and three or four feet focal distance, 
is more convenient than a large one. Such a 
telescope, with powers varying from 25 to 150, 
will show many of the most interesting objects 
in the heavens. It will give a beautiful view of 
the moon, in all its phases, showing its craters 
and mountains ; it will define the satellites of 
Jupiter, and the rings of Saturn ; it will sepa- 
rate many of the double stars, and show their 
colors ; it will reveal the nebulae, and some of 
the fine groups or clusters of stars. Such a glass 
is more easily managed than a large one, and is 
much the best for those commencing the study. 

Of groups of stars, some of the principal are 
the Pleiades, the Ilyades, Berenice's Hair, the 
cluster in Perseus, and Proesepe, or the Beehive, ' 

1 This means the diameter of the object-glass at the cud of the 
telescope nearest the object. The object-glass is the most impor- 
tant part of the instrument. 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 29 

in Cancer. The last appears as a nebula to the 
naked eye. Few persons can see more than six 
stars in the Pleiades, when looked at directly ; but 
by turning the eye sideways, we discover more. 
Miss Any, daughter of the Astronomer Eo} T al, 
England, has been able to count twelve. 

The cluster called Berenice's Hair is midway 
between the star called Cor Caroli and Denebola 
in the Lion's Tail. It consists chiefly of a large 
number of small stars. 

Prsesepe, which seems like a nebula to the 
naked eye, is easily resolved by a telescope of 
small power into a collection of stars. 

As the leading stars in each constellation are 
marked by Greek letters on all the maps and 
globes, we will give the forms and names of 
these letters here : — 

a, Alpha. £, Iota. /?, Rho. 

/5, Beta. /c, Kappa. <r, Sigma. 

^, Gamma. A, Lambda. r, Tau. 

d, Delta. fi, Mu. u, Upsilon. 

e, Epsilon. v, Nu. <p, Phi. 
C, Zeta. £, Xi. /, Chi. 
7), Eta. o, Omicron. ^, Psi. 

0, Theta. 7r, Pi. w, Omega. 



30 HOW TO FIND TEE STARS. 

Arabic names are also given to the largest and 
most conspicuous stars. 

Circumpolar Constellations. These five con- 
stellations, Ursa Minor and Major, Cepheus, 
Draco, and Cassiopeia, never set to observers in 
most parts of the United States. The objects 
they contain can therefore be studied at almost 
any period of the year. 

Ursa Minor, the Lesser Bear, has the Pole star 
at the extremity of its tail, and it swings round 
the Pole every twenty-four hours. The Pole star 
is 1° 23' from the true pole, and in A. D. 2095 
will be within less than half a degree of the polar 
point. The Pole star is a double star, with a small 
companion w r hich can be seen by a power of 80 
and an aperture of two inches, and is a good 
test for small telescopes. These two stars are 
of the second and ninth magnitudes. 

Ursa Major, the Greater Bear, is said, by Cot- 
ton Mather, to have been so called by the Indians, 
long before they had any communication with the 
Europeans. 

The names of the chief stars in Ursa Major are 
given in the directions for finding the constella- 
tions. 

The middle star in the tail, Mizar, or Zeta, 



HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 31 

has a companion, Alcor, which is visible to the 
naked eye. These two stars are 5' 11 J" apart, 
and so form a good standard for measuring short 
distances. Another companion, of the fifth mag- 
nitude, may be seen by a telescope. 

Alpha (named Dubhe) , the Pointer nearest the 
Pole, has also a telescopic companion, of the 
eighth magnitude, of a violet color. 

On the first day of January, at nine in the 
evening, the Dipper is in the northeast quarter 
of the heavens, with the handle pointing down- 
ward to the horizon. April 1st, at the same 
hour, it is nearly overhead, the handle pointing 
to the east. July 1st, it has gone round to the 
west of the Pole, the cup being now downward, 
and the handle pointing upward. October 1st, 
it is between the Pole and the northern horizon, 
the handle pointing to the west. 

Beta and Gamma, the two stars in the bottom 
of the Dipper, are called the " Guardians of the 
Pole," as they march round it continually, like 
soldiers guarding a tent. 

Alpha (Dubhe) , the Pointer, is 28|° from the 
North Pole. 

Alpha and Delta, the two upper stars in the 
cup, are 10° apart. 



32 HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

The Guardians of the Pole are 8° apart. 

Benetnasch (Eta), the end of the handle, is of 
the second magnitude, and is 7° from Mizar 
(Zeta), in the middle of the handle. 

Alioth (Epsilori), the third star in the handle, 
is 4J° from Mizar. 

Megrez (Delta) is the smallest star of the 
seven, and is in a line with the Pole star and 
Caph (or Beta) Cassiopeia?, which is equidistant 
from the pole on the opposite side. Both these 
stars are on the equinoctial colure. 

Three pairs of small stars, one at the extremity 
of the right fore paw of the Bear, and two at the 
extremity of each of the hind paws, and all in a 
line, which line is nearly parallel with the Guar- 
dians of the Pole, indicate the limits of the con- 
stellation. 

Cepheus. Beta in Cepheus is a double star of 
the third and eighth magnitudes. 

Delta Cephei is a variable star, with a period 
of five days, eight hours, and forty-seven min- 
utes. Its range is from the third to the fifth 
magnitude. 

Cassiopeia. The star Eta is an eas}' double of 
the fourth and seventh magnitudes. Colors 3-el- 
low and purple. 



HOW TO FIED TEE STARS. 33 

There is a loose cluster of stars, half-way from 
Gamma to Kappa, and another cluster, six de- 
grees northwest of Caph {Beta C). 

Winter Constellations. 

Some remarkable objects in the winter constel- 
lations are as follows : — 

Orion. The star Delta, the upper star in the 
belt in January, is a wide double, of the second 
and seventh magnitudes. 

Alpha Orionis (Betelguese) is a remarkable 
variable. It is sometimes brighter than Capella ; 
then it falls back until only a little brighter than 
stars of the second magnitude. Its period is 
about one hundred and ninety-six days. 

Beta Orionis (Rigel) is a celebrated double 
star of the first and seventh magnitudes. It is a 
test for a three-inch aperture. 

Zeta, the lowest star in the belt, is a close 
double. 

The three stars in the belt of Orion make a 
line just three degrees in length, divided exactly 
in the middle by the central star, and so make a 
good measure of distances in the heavens. Hence 
these three stars have been called " The Yard- 
stick." 



34 EOW TO FIND TEE STARS. 

The great nebula in the sword of Orion is one 
of the most extraordinary objects of this kind in 
the heavens. It appears, in a small telescope, as 
a mass of light cloud shining in the sk}-, with a 
singular black opening in the midst. In this 
opening are four stars, constituting what is called 
the trapezium. This nebula is not only one of 
the finest, but one of the most conveniently situ- 
ated for observation. 

Above this nebula is a cluster of stars, and 
also a multiple star, Sigma Orionis. The middle 
star of the belt has a distant blue companion, and 
is, itself, a nebulous star. 

Below Orion is Lepus (The Hare), containing 
the following double stars : — 

Xi Leporis (c), white and scarlet. 

Gamma L. (/), yellow and garnet. 

Iota L. (c) , white and pale violet. 

The star (a Monocerotis) in the left fore foot 
is a fine triple, but will appear as a double to a 
small power. Delta M. (S) is an easy double. 

Castor (which is east of the zenith in Janu : 
ary) is a fine double star, easily separated. The 
components are about five seconds apart, both 
white. Castor and Pollux are about five degrees 
apart. 



SOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 35 

The Pleiades (easily found) are a beautiful 
cluster in the telescope, which reveals great num- 
bers of stars. 

The Hyades, in the Bull, near the bright red 
star Aldebaran, is another beautiful cluster, 
more diffused than the Pleiades. The star Alde- 
baran has been carefully examined by the spec- 
troscope, and is shown to contain hydrogen, 
sodium, magnesium, iron, antimony, mercury, 
calcium, bismuth, and tellurium. 

The Crab Nebula (1 M.) is near C Tauri 
(Zeta), and appears oval in a small telescope. 

Some other remarkable objects are to be seen 
in the heavens in Januarj^. For example : 

Pressepe, in the constellation Cancer, is rising 
in the east, below the Twins. With Castor 
and Procj^on it makes a nearly right-angled 
triangle, the right angle being at Prsesepe. To 
the naked eye it appears as a nebulous speck ; 
but a telescope of moderate power easily resolves 
it into a cluster of minute stars, of which forty 
have been counted with such an instrument. 

Another cluster is in the s word -handle of Per- 
seus, but is better situated for observation in 
March or April, when it is lower down in the 



36 ROW TO FIXD TJIF STAKS. 

west. A line drawn from Alcyone, the brightest 
star in the Pleiades, passes through this cluster 
to the middle of Cassiopeia. This is one of the 
most brilliant telescopic objects in the heavens. 

Low down in the southwest, in January, is the 
large constellation, "The Whale" (Cetus), the 
chief stars of which arrange themselves in the 
form of an invalid's chair, the back leaning to- 
ward Orion. The star in the middle of this back 
is called Mira, and is a remarkable variable. It 
passes from the brightness of a star of the second 
magnitude till it becomes invisible. Its period is 
three hundred and thirty-one days, eight hours, 
and four minutes. It remains in its greatest 
brightness for about a fortnight, being then 
nearly equal to a star of the second magni- 
tude. It then decreases during three months, 
till it becomes invisible, in which state it con- 
tinues during five months, when it reappears, 
and increases during its remaining period of 
three months. After having disappeared to the 
naked e}-e, it may sometimes, but not always, be, 
traced to its lowest point as a star of the twelfth 
magnitude b}' a telescope of considerable power, 
but sometimes disappears entirely. 



HOW TO FIND THE STABS. 37 

Spring Months — Noticeable Objects. 

Double Stars. One of the finest is Gamma An- 
dromeclas, of the third and fifth magnitudes. The 
colors are deep j'ellow and sea-green. Androm- 
eda, in April, is low down in the northwest. 

The double star Castor is in a good position 
for observation at this time. 

Gamma Leonis, the brightest star in the blade 
of the Sickle, and above Regulus, in the south, 
is a fine double. The magnitudes are second and 
ninth. 

Gamma Virginis, a " wonderful pair" of the 
fourth magnitude each — colors, silvery- white 
and pale-yellow. In 1836 they were so close 
together that no telescope could separate them ; 
but they now are so far apart that a telescope of 
moderate power shows them. 

Sigma Coronas Borealis — magnitudes six and 
seven ; distance three seconds ; colors, yellow and 
blue. The colors and sizes are very variously 
reported. 

Clusters and JSfebulm. The nebula in Androm- 
eda is one of the finest in the heavens. It is in 
the form of a lens, and nearly half a degree long ; 
visible to the naked eye on a clear night. This 
is one of the irresolvable nebulas, which defies the 



38 HOW TO FIND THE STARS. 

power of the Cambridge refractor, which extended 
it to the surprising dimensions of four degrees of 
length. 

Cluster in Hercules. This is perhaps the 
finest object of the kind in the heavens. It is a 
superb globular cluster, in which thousands of 
stars appear. It will be found between Eta and 
Zeta of Hercules. It is just visible to the 
eye. 

Variable Star. The star Algol, in the head of 
Medusa, has the very short period of two days, 
twentj" hours, and forty-eight minutes. During 
two daj's and fourteen hours it is of the second 
magnitude ; and during the rest of the period it 
gradually diminishes to the fourth magnitude, and 
returns again to the second. Its name in Arabic 
means " The Demon." 

Objects in Summer and Autumn. 

Double Stars. Early in summer a fine quad- 
ruple can be seen in the northeast near the 
beautiful and brilliant star Vega in Lyra. The, 
star Epsilon I/p-^e, which makes with Zeta Lyrae 
and Vega a small equilateral triangle, is sep- 
arated by a good telescope into two stars, each 
of which is a double star. 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 39 

Zeta Lyrse is a splendid and easy double ; 
colors topaz and green ; magnitudes four and 
five. 

Eta Lyrse is a wide double. 

Alpha Herculis. Magnitudes three and five.. 
Colors, orange and emerald green. Distance five 
seconds. " A lovely object, one of the finest in 
the heavens." 

Kappa Herculis. Magnitudes five and seven. 
Distance thirty-one seconds. Color, yellow. An 
easy double. 

Beta Scorpionis is a fine double. Magnitudes 
two and five. Distance thirteen seconds. Colors, 
white and lilac. 

Xi Scorpionis is a double in the claw farthest 
east. Magnitudes four and seven. Distance, 
seven seconds. 

39 Ophiuchi is a double in the right foot of 
Ophiuchus. Magnitudes five and seven. Dis- 
tance, twelve seconds. 

70 Ophiuchi, in the right shoulder. Colors, 
yellow and red. Magnitudes, four and a half 
and seven. Distance, five seconds. 

67 Ophiuchi, near 70. Magnitudes four and 
eight. Distance, fifty-five seconds. 

Epsilon Bootis. Colors, pale-orange and sea- 



40 SOW TO FIXD THE STARS. 

green. Magnitudes, three and seven. Distance, 
two or three seconds. Called Puleherriinuni on 
account of its great beaut}'. 

Beta C} T gni (Albireo). One of the finest 
doubles in the heavens. Colors, yellow and 
sapphire-blue. Magnitudes, three and seven. 
Distance, thirty-four seconds. 

Clusters and Nebuke. A nebula in Lyra, the 
only annular nebula accessible in common tele- 
scopes. Easily found, one-third of the distance 
from Beta Lyrse toward Gamma Lyrae. Some- 
what oval. 

A nebula between Alpha and Beta Scorpionis. 
Described by Sir William Herschel as u the 
richest and most condensed mass of stars in the 
heavens." Like a comet. 

A nebula in Sagittarius (M. 22) "is a valua- 
ble object for common telescopes on account of 
the visibility of its compounds." Draw an im- 
aginary line from the upper end of the bow to 
the hand of the Archer, and this nebula will be 
found upon it. This cluster is on the Sun's path, 
and another cluster on the same circle, due west 
(M. 8) , is a splendid galaxj-, visible to the naked 
eye. A bright coarse triple star is followed by 
a luminous mass. 



EOW TO FIND THE STABS. 41 

Five M. in Libra is " a beautiful assemblage 
of minute stars, greatly compressed in the 
centre." 

We have given only a few of the conspicuous 
objects, and for the rest refer the observer to 
such work as Proctor's ' ' Half-hours with the 
Telescope," and " Half-hours with the Stars ; " 
Edwin Dunkin's "The Midnight Sky ; " Webb's 
" Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes ; " 
J. J. Von Littrow's "Atlas des gestirnten Him- 
mels " (German text, and good maps, and cheap) ; 
"Chambers's Descriptive Astronomy" (8vo, 
1867); Burritt's "Geography of the Heavens, 
and Atlas ; " " Atlas of the Heavens in Six 
Maps," published by the Society for the Diffu- 
sion of Useful Knowledge ; Dick's Astronomical 
Works, and those of Arago, Herschel, Nicol, 
Rolfe, Bouvier. Burritt's School Atlas is cheap 
and good, though the plates are now somewhat 
worn. Perhaps the best Star Atlases are those 
of Proctor ("A New Star Atlas," second edition, 
by R. A. Proctor), and of Argelander ("Urano- 
metria Nova ; " containing seventeen charts of the 
Heavens) ; together with that of Hind, in Keith 
Johnson's Atlas of Astronomy. 



42 



ROW TO FIXD TEE STARS. 



§7. — DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMI- 
CAL LANTERN AND THE SLIDES. 

The object of the Astronomical Lantern is to 
facilitate the study of stellar astronomy. It is 
intended for beginners, for astronomical classes 
in the high schools or private schools, and, in 
fact, for all who desire to become acquainted with 
the constellation's. 

The difficulty hitherto experienced in this 
study, and which is obviated by the use of the 
Lantern, is this : In order to study the starry 
heavens, it has been necessary to use an astro- 
nomical atlas, or a celestial globe. These must 
be examined in the house, by the light of a lamp. 
The observer, having found his constellation on 
the atlas, goes out to look for it in the sky. But, 
by the time he gets out of doors, he has forgotten 
how it looked on the atlas. And when he has 
found it in the sky, he has forgotten how it looked 
there, before he gets back to his atlas or globe. 
All who have studied the constellations have met 
with this difficulty. 

Now, the Astronomical Lantern will make the 
study of the stars perfectly simple and easy. It 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 43 

is constructed like a dark-lantern, closed on three 
sides, and on the fourth provided with a ground 
glass, in front of which slides can be inserted. 
On each of these slides, which are semi-trans- 
parent, is represented a constellation, the places 
of the stars being indicated by perforations, 
through which the light shines. The largest per- 
forations in these slides are for the stars of the 
first magnitude, and they are made smaller, in 
due proportion, for the lesser stars. The student, 
therefore, wishing to observe any particular con- 
stellation or cluster, has only to light a candle 
within the Lantern, insert the appropriate slide, 
and go out into the night. He holds up the Lan- 
tern in one hand, and can compare, at his leisure, 
the constellation as it appears on the Lantern 
with that in the sky, until he becomes perfectly 
familiar with the latter. 

It is easy to see how much the use of such 
■ a Lantern facilitates the whole study. In fact, 
we think that henceforth no one wishing to be- 
come acquainted with the heavens can afford to 
dispense with it. The increased ease of the study 
will probably also enlarge the number of students 
in this interesting department of science. We 
all are glad to know the names and positions 



44 SOW TO FIXD TUF STARS. 

of the stars. For, though Shakespeare has 

said, — 

"Thoso earthly godfathers of Heaven's lights, 
Who give a name to every wandering star, 
Have no more profit of their shining nights 
Than we who walk and know not what they are ; " 

jet it must be confessed that to recognize the 
famous stars and groups which have been referred 
to since the da} T s of Job, in the literature of all 
nations, is no small satisfaction. 

This invention was patented December, 1870, 
and is manufactured and sold by Lock wood, 
Brooks & Co., Boston. 

To use the Lantern, it is necessary to see what 
constellations are favorably situated for observa- 
tion at the time ; which can be done by the help 
of this little treatise. A slide is then selected, 
containing one of the groups of stars which are 
above the horizon ; it is then put in its place and 
the candle is lighted. Then, by holding it up, 
and comparing the slide thus illuminated with the, 
stars themselves, the principal stars and their 
positions will be easily fixed in the memory. 

The card-slides accornpaivying the lantern are 
seventeen in number, and contain all the con- 



HOW TO FIND TEE 8 TAB 8. 45 

stellations visible to an observer in the Northern 
Temperate Zone. Other slides can easily be 
added as required. In these maps of the con- 
stellations we have retained the names and the 
designations of the stars, but have omitted the 
figures of Bears, Bulls, Unicorns, Sheep, Virgins, 
Dragons, Lions, and the like, which have so long 
disfigured the celestial globe. Instead of these 
confusing figures, few of which bear any resem- 
blance to the constellations, we have substituted 
dotted lines, tying together in simple figures the 
chief stars in each cluster. Experience shows 
that hj these diagrams the separate constellations 
are much more easily recognized and remembered 
than -by the traditional pictures of animals, 
monsters, and men, which have hitherto crowded 
the starry atlas. By these connecting lines, the 
principal stars in each group are easily found and 
associated in the memory. 

In preparing these slides we have followed the 
"Uranometria Nova" of Argelander. (Trans- 
lation of the title: "The New Uranometria. A 
representation of the stars visible to the naked 
eye in Central Europe, the magnitudes being 
taken from immediate observation of the heav- 
ens. By D. Fr. Argelander, Professor of As- 



46 HOW TO FIND TEE STARS. 

tronomy, and Director of the Observatory at 
Bonn. Berlin, 1843.") This atlas was selected 
because of its reputation for accuracy, and be- 
cause the scale by which it is drawn was best 
adapted to the size of our slides. The stars 
of the first four magnitudes are perforated by 
means of punches of the appropriate size. At 
the top of the map is given the names of the con- 
stellations which it contains. At the bottom is 
given their position in the heavens at such time 
of the year as is suitable for observation. The 
stars are lettered with their proper symbol. 
Double stars are indicated by a D. The nebula? 
are shown by means of a group of minute dots, 
and star-clusters in a similar way. On each map 
is also a list of the telescopic objects which are to 
be found in the constellations represented upon 
it, — those, at least, which are suitable for small 
telescopes. In this way the lantern ma}* be of 
great use to observers possessing such instru- 
ments, by enabling them to find easily the double 
stars, clusters, etc., which are in a convenient 
position for observation at an}* period of the year. 
Those who have spent hours in looking through 
books of astronomy, in order to see what suitable 
subjects for their telescopes are above the horizon 



HOW TO FIND TEE STABS. 47 

at any particular time, will easily understand the 
advantage of this arrangement. In choosing 
among the various doubles and nebulae, we have 
made much use of Mr. Proctor's valuable little 
work, "Half-hours with the Telescope;" and in 
locating these objects we have constantly con- 
sulted Mr. Proctor's " New Star Atlas," com- 
paring it continually with the well-known maps 
published by the Society for the Diffusion of 
Useful Knowledge, both of which are very rich in 
nebulae. 

We will only say, in conclusion, that we hope 
this simple apparatus may facilitate the study of 
the science which offers so much pleasure and 
instruction to its votaries. 



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At all bookstores, or sent postpaid on receipt of price. 

LOCKWOOD, BROOKS & CO., 

381 Washington Street, Boston. 



How to Find the Stars. 



WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE 



Astronomical Lantern and Its Use. 



JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE. 



BOSTON : 

LOCK WOOD, BROOKS & CO. 

3S1 Washington Street. 

1878. 



